This
chapter was co-authored by Jeff Kenworthy, Associate
Professor for Sustainable Settlements, Institute
for Sustainability and Technology Policy, Murdoch
University, Western Australia; Robert Murray-Leach,
Environmental Officer, South Australian State
Government; and Dr Craig Townsend, Planning
and Transport Research Centre, Perth, Western
Australia.
Jeff
Kenworthy
Associate
Professor in Sustainable Settlements,
Institute
for Sustainability and Technology Policy
Murdoch
University,
Western Australia
Related
papers from Jeff Kenworthy
Dr.
Craig Townsend
Assistant Professor, Concordia University
Department
of Geography, Planning and Environment
Related
papers from Craig Townsend
(Extracts
from book)
Travel
is so seamlessly intertwined with the range
of activities comprising our daily lives that
it is difficult to step back and clearly assess
how it influences our quality of life, economy,
and environment. In recent decades, we have
grown accustomed to traveling further, faster
and more frequently. Transport has many aspects,
including movement in urban and rural areas,
movement of people and freight, and movement
by land, air and water. This chapter focuses
on the global transport sector which directly
affects a large and growing proportion of the
world's population on a daily basis: urban passenger
transport. Over the last half of the 20th century,
privately-owned and operated motor vehicles
have increasingly dominated urban passenger
transport systems in many countries. As part
of a balanced transport system, cars and motorbikes
can bring flexibility and convenience that enrich
our lives. However, with the rapid growth in
private vehicle use our transport systems have
become increasingly imbalanced, resulting in
the problems from private motor vehicle exceeding
their benefits.
.The
impacts of current motorized vehicles on air
quality, human health and urban public spaces
have been concerns for many decades now. In
the 1990s 'sustainable urban transport' became
a mainstream challenge to the notion that urban
transport systems dominated by motor cars can
be sustainable. In part this has been driven
by the continued growth of car use in high-income
cities, but also by the rapid growth in motor
vehicle use in the large and growing cities
of China, India, and South-east Asia. If these
cities were to become as dependent on motor
vehicles as many cities in Australia and North
America, the global environmental consequences
could potentially be extreme...
...It
has been widely demonstrated how important urban
form is in helping to explain the macropatterns
of urban transportation, especially the level
of auto-dependence and transport energy use.
Urban density, a key characteristic or measure
of urban form, is closely correlated with energy
use. The Millennium Cities Database data suggest
that car use, energy use and greenhouse gas
production are positively correlated with each
other while negatively correlated with population
density. Higher car and energy use cities, and
the highest greenhouse gas producers, are low
in population density, while the higher density
cities have lower car and energy use per person
and lower transport greenhouse gases...
..While
urban transport planning was once viewed as
a solely technical activity to be executed by
'value-free' experts, it is now acknowledged
that it is an inherently political activity
because it influences the distribution of costs
and benefits within societies. There are a number
of questionable assumptions held by many policy-makers
that challenge the introduction of sustainable
transport. For example, it is widely asserted
that promoting alternatives to car use will
damage local car industries. This view is countered
by the examples of Japan and Korea, which became
major car manufacturing nations while exercising
strong restraints on domestic car use. People
who cycle to work are still likely to own cars
for longer journeys, a fact that was recognized
by Volkswagen when it included free bicycles
with new cars in 1996. While planners working
for the state may have certain designs or ideas
for urban transport systems, civil society groups
or private companies may circumvent or overturn
the government planners. If state actions are
not coordinated or congruent with the actions
of communities (civil society) or businesses
(the private sector) they will have little chance
of success.
Related
Papers from Jeff Kenworthy
Urban
Design to Reduce Automobile Dependence (Peter
Newman, Jeff Kenworthy) (paper submitted to
Opolis: An International Journal of Suburban
and Metropolitan Studies. Volume 2, Issue
1 2006, Article 3)
A
major goal of urban design, especially in centers,
is to reduce automobile dependence in order
to address issues of viability and sustainability.
Long-term data from cities around the world
appear to show that there is a fundamental threshold
of urban intensity (residents and jobs) of around
35 per hectare where automobile dependence is
significantly reduced. This article seeks to
determine a theoretical base for what the data
show. It suggests that below the threshold intensity
of urban activity, the physical constraints
of distance and time enforce car use as the
norm. The basis of these physical constraints
is outlined and the link between density and
access to services that provide amenity is established,
including the service levels of public transport.
A design technique for viability of centers
is suggested as well as how a city can restructure
itself to overcome automobile dependence.
View
paper
Transport
Energy Use and Greenhouse Gases in Urban Passenger
Transport Systems: A Study of 84 Global Cities.
(Kenworthy,
J. (2003))
(Submitted
to the International Sustainability Conference:
Second Meeting of the Academic Forum of Regional
Government for Sustainable Development 2003,
Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Perth
) The
transport sector will be very hard hit by the
"big rollover" in world oil production due to
occur within the next 10 years. Urban transport
in particular is almost entirely dependent upon
oil, and will take many years to shift to other
energy sources. Most cities will be particularly
vulnerable during the transition to a post-petroleum
world. Likewise, the growing focus on global
warming and greenhouse issues places additional
pressure on urban transport to reduce its CO2
output. This paper provides a review of transport,
urban form, energy use and CO2 emissions patterns
in an international sample of 84 cities in the
USA , Australia , Canada , Western Europe, high
income Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East,
Africa, low income Asia, Latin America and China
.
View
paper | View
presentation
Transport
and Urban Form in Chinese Cities: An International
Comparative and Policy Perspective with Implications
for Sustainable Urban Transport in China.
(Kenworthy, J. and Hu, G. (2002)) (DISP
[ Zurich ], vol 151, pp4-14.)
Chinese
cities are acknowledged worldwide as being the
leaders in non-motorised transport. Many other
aspects of their transport and urban form are
also conducive to low levels of automobile dependence.
However, urban China is changing rapidly with
very high rates of motorisation and a number
of policies and factors that are pushing their
transport systems towards greater reliance on
cars and motor cycles. Development of quality
public transport systems appears not to be keeping
pace with the emphasis on private transport.
This paper briefly explores how Chinese cities
compared on key transport and urban form factors
to a large sample of other cities from around
the world in 1995. It further examines a range
of important policies and factors that are shaping
Chinese urban transport systems and explores
the potential of Chinese cities to embrace the
ideal of "sustainable urban transport", as opposed
to increasing automobile dependence.
View
paper
Transport
and Urban Planning for the Post-Petroleum Era
(Kenworthy, J.)
An
overview paper on alternative sustainable transport
planning, which outlines a four-step process
for reducing transport energy use and 'confronting
the post-petroleum world'. The paper concludes
by noting that systematic solutions are required
that integrate better technologies, better pricing
and better urban and transport planning. The
result of reducing transport systems' inherent
energy dependence will have enormous positive
impacts on the sustainability and livability
of the city.
View
paper
Can
Rail Pay? Light Rail Transit and Urban Redevelopment
with Value Capture Funding and Joint Development
Mechanisms.
Discussion Paper (Jan Scheurer, Peter Newman,
Jeff Kenworthy with Thomas Gallagher)
View
paper
Indicators
of Transport Efficiency in 37 Global Cities
(Peter
Newman, Jeff Kenworthy, Felix Laube & Paul
Barter) A report to the World Bank.
View
website
Automobile
Dependence: 'The Irresistible Force?' (Jeff
Kenworthy & Peter Newman)
This
paper critically examines the proposition that
the automobile is unstoppable and presents data
on US, Australian, European and Asian cities.
View
website
Transport
Energy Conservation Policies for Australian
Cities: Strategies for Reducing Automobile Dependence
(Peter Newman, Jeff Kenworthy &
Tom Lyons)
This
compendium of data and articles is compulsory
reading for those interested in comparative
studies of transport issues over the world.
View
website
Melbourne
in an International Comparison of Urban Transport
Systems:
Marvellous or Mediocre (J.
Kenworthy & P. Newman. Institute for Sustainability
and Technology Policy, Murdoch University ,
2002)
Related
Papers from Craig Townsend
Kenworthy,
Jeff and Townsend, Craig. (forthcoming) "A Comparative
Perspective on Urban Transport and Emerging
Environmental Problems in Middle Income Cities"
,
in McGranahan, Gordon et al. forthcoming. Scaling
the Urban Environmental Challenge: From the
local to the global and back, United Nations
University Press: Tokyo.
Townsend,
Craig. 2003. "Roads Before Rail: Development
of Expressways and Mass Transit in Bangkok and
Kuala Lumpur ", 9th WCTR Selected Proceedings,
Elsevier Ltd.
Kenworthy,
Jeff and Craig Townsend. 2002. "An International
Comparative Perspective on Motorisation in Urban
China : Problems and Prospects", IATSS Research,
v. 26 n. 2. pp. 99-109.
Townsend,
Craig. 2000. "Implications of Urban Transport
Infrastructure Development", Asia ecoBest, August,
v. 2 n. 4.
Inspiring
Case Studies of Sustainable Urban Transport
around the World
(extracted
or adapted from The Natural Advantage of
Nations, Chapter 19)
Pedestrianization
of Guangzhou brings business
Guangzhou
's
trial Beijing road pedestrian area was made
permanent after proving popular with city residents,
the district mayor, and the business community.
Now every district is clamouring for their own
pedestrian area to attract more business. The
city hopes that this - along with measures to
preserve several historical districts and the
Jade Market - will help increase the average
'business tourist' stay from 1 to 2 days.
View
website
Cycling
leads to a Safer and Greener Netherlands
Safe
footpaths and cycling networks are minimum requirements
for a society that walks and cycles. In the
Netherlands, where a strong commitment has been
made to cycling infrastructure, 28 per cent
of trips are made by bicycle. Pedestrian
fatalities per billion km walked are less than
a tenth as high as in the United States, and
bicyclist fatalities per billion km cycled are
only a fourth as high.
View
PDF
Taj
Mahal & Mizrapur Rickshaws reduce emissions
and increase wealth
Some
of the most innovative uses of non-motorized
transport are occurring in lower-income cities.
Air pollution around the Taj Mahal, in India,
sparked a renaissance in cycle rickshaws. Local
agencies and the Institute for Transportation
and Development Policy designed modernized,
lightweight rickshaws that have raised the status
of this mode and increased the earnings of their
drivers, with over 30,000 units now sold across
India. In Mizrapur, cycle rickshaws are now
used for part of the collection of street waste,
lowering emissions, increasing hygiene and helping
to beautify the city.
View
website
Rapid
Transit and Rapid Growth: Curitiba, Brazil
A
truly remarkable and widely cited example of
whole system engineering design in sustainable
transport systems lies in Curitiba, Brazil.
Dubbed the fastest growing city in Brazil, it
remains one of the most livable in the continent
due to its extremely effective transportation
system. The system that mimicks an underground
rail system, but is aboveground and at 500-fold
less cost. Approximately 70 percent of all Curitibans
use the bus system - the 'flat social fare'
of 20 pence for unlimited transfers cover running
costs of the whole system, hence is unsubsidised
from government.
View
pdf (case study in detail from Natural
Capitalism, Chapter 14: Human Capitalism).
The
Soul of Seoul: Tearing Down Freeways to Re-Build
a City
As
part of Seoul Mayor Lee Mung-Bak's plan to reduce
the proportion of trips made by car from 27
per cent to 12 per cent between 2002 and 2006,
the Cheonggyecheon Expressway will be replaced
with a BRT system. The
cornerstone of this dramatic new vision is the
restoration of the Cheonggyecheon, an 84-meter
wide river running through central Seoul 's
Dongdaemun district. Once the center of a diverse
urban landscape, the river was gradually polluted
with a toxic mix of chemicals, then between
1958 and 1978, it was covered with concrete
and the city built the Cheonggyecheon elevated
highway over it. The highway cuts through the
center of Seoul and has long diminished the
quality of life for residents of South Korea
's capital city. The new development involves
taking down the six-lane highway, decontaminating
the Cheonggyecheon and creating a park and wide
pedestrian corridor on the shores of the river
in its place.
View
website
The
new development will see the removal of a six-lane
freeway and restoration of the Cheonggyecheon
river.
Urban
Growth Boundaries Benefit Portland
Urban
growth boundaries and focusing investment into
existing communities are critical steps in ensuring
that cities remain compact. If inner cities
are left to decay, those who can afford to will
flee to new development at the urban fringe
in a continual vicious circle. Revitalizing
neighbourhoods, on the other hand, has the potential
to give everyone a chance to live in an attractive
suburb. The City of Portland is often cited
as a successful example of urban growth boundaries
(UGB), as its UGB has been in place sufficiently
long enough for its effects to emerge. While
there has been debate over the affordability
of housing in Portland, the
city's policy matrix has seen greater urban
redevelopment and infill accompanied by rapid
economic growth and improved quality of life.
Developers
have started to accept limitations on building
at 'greenfield' sites at the edge of cities,
as they have become more familiar with sustainability
principles and the success of 'New Urbanism'
styles of developments.
View
website
Hong
Kong
Integrates Urban Density for Multiple Benefits
Integrating
increased urban density with provision for pedestrians
and cyclists and improved public transport brings
multiplied benefits. Bus interchanges and rail
are particularly important in this process,
as it also encourages land developers to build
around stations, further increasing the local
density and accessibility. It appears that a
fixed rail system has this impact by offering
developers security for their investments, combined
with the quieter, cleaner surroundings, due
to electric propulsion...In Hong Kong, developers
of high rise housing and commercial buildings
were given concessions to develop around stations.
This has resulted in high-density, mixed use
development which is highly accessible by public
transport, such as Tsuen Wan metro terminal,
which is pedestrian friendly and contains a
bus interchange, shopping centre and offices.
View
website
Calm
traffic in Singapore
In
many cities, enabling people to walk and cycle
safely will entail 'traffic calming', which
involves reducing the speed and volume of car
traffic by narrowing or removing traffic lanes
and changing the streetscape and the geometry
of the road. In Singapore the incumbent government
has been discouraging widespread car ownership
and use through a number of highly coordinated
measures. Singaporean citizens seeking to purchase
cars must first bid for a limited number of
'Certificates of Entitlement' that allow them
to buy a car, which is then heavily taxed.
View
website
Transport
Equity Act for the 21 st Century (TEA 21)
The
US has developed a model for giving communities
choice about transport issues. The US Intermodal
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act and its
successor, the Transport Equity Act for the
21st Century (TEA 21) has since 1991 given local
transport decisions to local planners. It requires
consultation and preparation of overall transport
plans considering pedestrians, cyclists and
pollution implications. Proposals use alternative
transport modes and link transport and land
planning.
View
website
The
End of Urban Freeway (by Peter Newman)
In
this article Peter Newman examines some of the
trends in providing alternatives to the urban
freeway in the UK, USA and Australia where there
appears to be the acceptance that a new paradigm
is emerging on how to build cities. The paper
provides evidence through case studies that
viable alternatives exist (and are well demonstrated
in European and Asian cities) to steer cities
away from the development of economically and
morally controversial freeways.
View
PDF
Online
Databases and Resources
Millennium
Cities Database for Sustainable Transport
The
International Association of Public Transport
(UITP) has compiled a database of 100 of the
world's cities, known as the "Millennium
Cities Database for Sustainable Transport",
in collaboration with Dr Jeff Kenworthy and
Felix Laube of Murdoch University, Australia.
The collected data looks at population, the
economy and urban structure, the number of road
vehicles, taxis, the road network, parking,
public transport networks (offer, usage and
cost), individual mobility and choice of transport
mode, transport system efficiency and environmental
impact (duration and cost of transport, energy
consumption, accidents, pollution, etc.). In
total, over 200 indicators have been collected
for each of the 100 cities for the year 1995.
View
Website
Australian
Federal Government Inquiry into sustainable
cities
On
8 August 2003 the Minister for Environment and
Heritage announced that the committee is to
inquire into the development of sustainable
cities. The Inquiry focuses on seven
visionary objectives, one of which is "the development
of sustainable transport networks, nodal complementarity
and logistics".
View
the discussion paper (PDF
92KB) or (RTF
176KB)
Schedule
of public hearings (and transcripts)
Sustainable
Cities Report
Transit
Australia Journal
The
Transit Australia Journal follows developments
in the urban passenger transport industry across
Australia and New Zealand. Published monthly
by Transit Australia Publishing, journal considers
all modes of urban passenger transport: both
heavy and light rail, ferry and bus, as well
as occasional feature articles focusing on information,
fares and ticketing, new technologies, accessibility
and some of the political and environmental
aspects of urban passenger transport; all considered
within the context of the relationship between
land use planning and transport.
View
website
The
New Jersey Smart Growth Gateway
The
New Jersey Smart Growth Gateway provides access
to information and resources on matters relating
to smart growth, sustainable development, and
environmental protection. Though directly relevant
to the New Jersey area, the gateway is a useful
resource for learning more about 'Smart Growth',
the range of sustainable development solutions
the concept entails, case studies of Smart Growth
applied and examples of regulations used, and
computer tools and data for implementing and
monitoring Smart Growth.
View
website
Sustainable
Urban Transport Related Organisations
International
Association of Public Transport (UITP)
International
Association of Public Transport (UITP) represents
over 2700 urban, local, regional and national
mobility and public transport professionals
from more than 90 countries in all continents.
UITP is a primary advocate and promoter of public
transport, acting as a knowledge hub for the
provision of transport statistics and mobility
indicators, current developments and future
trends, and case studies of best practice for
the public transport sector. UITP covers all
modes of public transport - metro, bus, light
rail, regional and suburban railways, and waterborne
transport. It also represents collective transport
in a broader sense (such as car-sharing). In
addition, UITP is currently further expanding
its presence on the mobility market, including
the taxi sector.
View
website and the UITP's complete list of
publications
.
Institution
of Engineers Australia . Sustainable Transport
- Responding to the Challenges (Sustainable
Energy Transport Task Force Report, November
1999)
The
Sustainable Energy Transport Task Force of the
Institution of Engineers, Australia has produced
a report entitled "Sustainable Transport
- Responding to the Challenges". The Task
Force was convened to consider the role that
transport might play in contributing to a more
sustainable energy culture in Australia. The
Task Force focused on what are considered to
be the most critical policy issues or key elements
in a sustainable transport framework and developed
a series of recommendations for future action.
View
Summary | View
Full Report
Australian
Productivity Commission. Progress in Rail
Reform - Inquiry Report (August, 1999)
The
Australian Productivity Commission was asked
to report on progress in rail reform. The inquiry
covered freight and passenger rail systems and
urban, intrastate and interstate rail operations.
The inquiry was required to identify reforms
already made within the rail industry and to
identify any further initiatives which may be
beneficial. Specifically, the report provides
detail on the existing structure of the rail
industry in Australia, the strengths and weaknesses
of the Australian rail industry, and implementation
strategies for measures to remove barriers to
improved efficiency and performance of the industry.
Access
Full Report
Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
(CSIRO)
CSIRO
is engaged in a number of research projects
focused on improving the efficiency and performance
of Australia 's transport systems.
View
website
Institute
for Sustainability and Technology Policy (ISTP)
The
ISTP under Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy is
conducting sustainable transport-related research
under the Sustainable Settlements program. The
ISTP has research expertise in introducing concepts
of New Urbanist Designs into local government
and integrating public transport, having provided
significant contribution to the development
of case studies for the widely recognised
Western
Australian State Sustainability Strategy.|
View
website
Sustainable
Urban Transport Project - Asia (SUTP)
Access
to opportunities is diminishing in many developing
cities due to a deteriorating transport environment.
Policy-makers are facing demands to meet the
changing mobility needs of citizens in ways
which are economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable. SUTP-Asia is a partnership between
the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), the
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA, CITYNET
and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) which aims
to help developing world cities achieve their
sustainable transport goals, through the dissemination
of information about international experience
and targeted work with particular cities. The
SUTP project has released a training course
document on Public Awareness and Behaviour Change.
View
website
World
Business Council for Sustainable Development
- Mobility 2030 Report
The
report, Mobility 2030 summaries the
outcomes of the collective efforts of more than
200 experts from a broad set of 12 industrial
companies who have taken part in the WBCSD's
Sustainable Mobility Project's committees and
work streams. Concentrating on road transportation,
Mobility 2030 shows how sustainable
mobility might be achieved and how progress
towards it could be measured.
View
Executive Summary | View
Full Report and Website
TAPESTRY
Travel
Awareness, Publicity and Education Supporting
a Sustainable Transport Strategy in Europe (TAPESTRY)
is a research and demonstration project funded
by the European Commission (DG Energy and Transport)
under the 5th RTD Framework Programme. The project
brings together 25 partners from 12 European
countries, ranging from local authorities and
local public transport operators to national
research agencies and leading researchers in
the field of travel behaviour.
View
website
Institute
for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP)
- Bus Rapid Transit Program
The
ITDP was founded in 1985 to promote environmentally
sustainable and equitable transportation policies
and projects worldwide. ITDP programs include
bus rapid transit, congestion pricing, pedestrianization,
bicycle and pedestrian planning, brownfield
revitalization, bicycle and cycle rickshaw modernization,
the development of buyers' cooperatives among
independent bicycle dealers, and emerging work
in health service delivery logistics.
View
website
Surface
Transport Policy Project (STPP)
The
Surface Transport Policy Project (STPP) is a
non-profit organization working to ensure a
diversified transportation system. STPP is funded
by individual donations and a range of national/regional
foundations including the Agua Foundation, the
Fannie Mae Foundation, the Ford Foundation,
the Heinz Foundation, the Hewlett Foundation,
the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the Joyce
Foundation, the James Irvine Foundation, the
David & Lucille Packard Foundation, and
the Rockefeller Foundation.
View
website
Rocky
Mountain Institute (RMI)
RMI
consults on a variety of sustainable transportation
projects including improving public transportation,
and developing alternatives to actual transportation
through community design and concepts such as
Smart Growth strategy.
View
website
Wuppertal
Institute
The
Wuppertal Institute's Research Group "
Future Energy and Mobility Structures "
investigates questions of systems and infrastructure,
with a focus on future energy and mobility structures.
It explores paths of transformation (technologies,
infrastructures) and the related implications
and chances. The Future Energy and Mobility
Structures research group focuses on sustainable
transportation projects related to 'New energy
carriers and fuels' and 'Energy- and transport-saving
spatial patterns'.
View
website
Bikeability
Toolkit
The
Bikeability Toolkit includes checklists and
resource materials that will help design physical
and social environments to encourage cycling.
The resource materials include references, guidelines
and other resources to assist in the implementation
of local bikeability audits and actions. This
toolkit was prepared by the Bicycle Federation
of Australia (BFA) for the Australian Greenhouse
Office in the Department of the Environment
and Heritage, with the endorsement of the Australian
Bicycle Council.
View
website
Further
Reading
Hawken,
P. Lovins, A. Lovins L. (1999) Natural Capitalism
(Earthscan, London). Chapter 2: Reinventing
the Wheels. Chapter freely downloadable from
http://www.natcap.org/images/other/NCchapter2.pdf.
Newman,
P.G. Kenworthy, J. ( 1990)
Cities and Automobile Dependence: A Sourcebook
(Ashgate Pub Co).
Newman,
P. Kenworthy, J. (1999) Sustainability and
Cities. (Island Press, Washington, DC.)
von
Weizsacker, E. Lovins, A.B. Lovins, L.H. (1997)
Factor 4: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource
Use (Earthscan, London).
Wright,
L. (2002) Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook
for Policy-makers in Developing Countries.
(Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit,
Eschborn).