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E-Waste
Education Course One
Highschool
Level
Lecture
2: Digital Delights - Consumers and E-Products
According
to the European Commission, ‘E-Waste is
the fastest growing component of municipal trash
by a factor of three’.[1]
In 2005 the United Nations Environment Program gave
an estimate of 20 to 50 million tons of E-Waste
being generated every year world wide.[2]
Short-life equipment such as computers and mobile
phones are the most problematic.[3]
The number of personal computers worldwide, ‘increased
fivefold – from 105 million machines in 1988
to more than half a billion in 2002’.[4]
By 2005, more than 1 billion computers were being
sold each year while 100 million computers reached
the end of their useful lives, 75 million of which
were landfilled.[5]
1. The volume of E-Waste is mainly due to the throw
away ethic, which is partly driven by the potential
for ‘... massive increase(s) in corporate
profits, particularly when the electronics industry
does not have to bear the financial burden of downstream
costs’.[6]
2. ‘According to the US National Safety
Councils (NSC) in Recycling of Selected Electronic
Products in the United States... only 11% of the
20 million computers that became obsolete in the
United States in 1998 were recycled’.[7]
3. ‘Government researchers estimate that
three quarters of all computers ever sold in the
U.S. are lying in basements and office closets,
awaiting disposal. An estimated 63 million personal
computers are expected to be retired... that's one
computer becoming obsolete for every new one put
on the U.S. market'.[8]
4. Due to the lack of definitive standards regarding
recyclers, it is likely that many recycling rate
estimates are overstated.[9]
Most of the time, ‘recycled’ means ‘exported
for recycling’, and often, most of the exported
wastes are landfilled. In fact, the UK exported
about 160,000 tons of E-Waste in 2003 and about
22% of all export wastes in some European countries
are illegal, containing large qualities of hazardous
post-consumer wastes.[10]
5. In the US, ‘the Department of Toxic
Substances Control has determined that most electronic
devices are toxic’.[11]
African nations (and other developing countries),
which are the primary destination of E-Waste, do
not understand the hazards associated with E-Waste.
‘Consequently... almost all of the discarded
imported electronic waste is thrown into formal
or informal dumpsites, all of which are unlined,
unmonitored, close to the groundwater and routinely
set afire’.[12]
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Brief
Background Information |
E-Waste is a global issue
In many cases, the end-of-life disposal volumes
only tell a fraction of the story. One of the most
materials intensive components of a computer is
the 2 gram microprocessor, which requires materials
of mass 1.26 kgms. It’s no surprise then,
that ‘Santa Clara County in California, the
birthplace of the semiconductor industry, contains
more toxic waste sites than any other county in
the United States’.[13]
Emerging technologies, such as high definition television
technologies, can also indirectly contribute to
E-Waste in the coming years. For example, there
are ‘more than 500 million televisions are
in homes, businesses, and institutions’ in
the US.[14]
It is likely that most of these standard definition
televisions will be replaced by their high definition
counterparts. The volume of E-Waste will only continue
to increase in the near term, especially with the
increasing number of people in developing countries
coming ‘online’ with communication technologies,
making E-Waste a global issue:
- Developing countries own a substantial share
of e-products. For example, of the estimated 20-50
million tons of E-Waste discarded annually worldwide,
Asian countries discard an estimated 12 million
tons.[15]
This share will continue to increase with the
rapidly developing economies of China and India,
who will have 178 million and 80 million new computers,
respectively, out of the global total of an estimated
716 million new computer users by 2010.[16]
This is an issue not only in Asia - for example,
between the years 2000 and 2004, the number of
fixed line telephones in Nigeria doubled. However,
in that same period, the number of mobile phones
in use rose from 35,000 to almost 9.2 million
– an increase by a factor of about 260;
and the number of internet users rose from about
107,000 to almost 1.8 million.[17]
- E-waste is often sent for recycling and refurbishing
in developing countries where labour is relatively
cheap, and, once there, can simply be landfilled.
For example, 50-80 percent of the E-Waste collected
for recycling in the US is exported, but ‘the
E-waste recycling and disposal operations found
in China, India, and Pakistan are extremely polluting
and likely to be very damaging to human health.
Examples include open burning of plastic waste,
exposure to toxic solders, river dumping of acids,
and widespread general dumping’.[18]
Effectively, developed countries are passing the
responsibilities, risks and hazards of E-Waste
to developing countries.
Transfer of end-of-life problems to
developing countries
The current situation involving the export of E-Waste
from developed countries to developing countries
for processing is outlined:[19]
Rather than having to face the problem squarely,
the United States and other rich economies that
use most of the world’s electronic products
and generate most of the E-Waste, have made use
of a convenient, and until now, hidden escape
valve – exporting the E-waste crisis to
the developing countries of Asia... Indeed, informed
recycling industry sources estimate that between
50 to 80 percent of the E-waste collected for
recycling in the western U.S. are not recycled
domestically, but is very quickly placed on container
ships bound for destinations like China. Even
the best-intentioned recyclers have been forced,
due to market realities, to participate in this
failed system… The open burning, acid baths
and toxic dumping pour pollution into the land,
air, and water and exposes the men, women, and
children of Asia’s poorer peoples to poison…
Vast amounts of E-waste material, both hazardous
and simply trash, is burned or dumped in the rice
fields, irrigation canals and along waterways.
Toxic substances in E-Waste
The US Department of Toxic Substances Control determined
that most electronic devices are toxic based on
just a few of the 1000 different substances in E-Waste,
such as lead, tin, copper, antimony, cadmium, mercury,
hexavalent chromium/chromium VI, plastics including
PVC, brominated, chlorinated and phosphorous-based
flame retardants, brominated organic compounds,
phthalate esters and esters of long-chain organic
acids, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), barium, beryllium, toners, phosphor,
arsenic, and additives, all of which can be poisonous
to people and wildlife.[20]
There exists the potential to release these toxic
substances into the industrial and natural environments
at all stages of E-Waste processing.[21]
With the exception of some plastics, the recycling
rate for almost all of these substances in Australia
is nil.[22]
About 70 percent, of heavy metals in US landfills
comes from E-Waste.[23]
Currently, one of the most threatening substances
is lead, of which only 5 percent is recycled in
Australia.[24]
Specific examples include:
- ‘... glass cathode ray tubes... contain
an average of 4 pounds of lead. Multiply that
by the 315 million computers expected to become
obsolete in the United States by 2004, and there
is 1.2 billion pounds of lead to worry about.
The color monitors of most computers contain a
CRT that fails federal toxicity criteria for lead
and is classified as hazardous waste by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency’..[25]
- An expected 312,000 pounds of lead will come
from the more than 500 million stockpiled mobile
phones in the US.[26]
Printed circuit boards are usually the main source
of precious metals in e-products. ‘A ton of
circuit boards yields approximately 10 ounces of
gold’.[27]
Specifically, an average mid-1990s computer contains
0.25-1 grams of gold, as well as platinum and silver.
In 1996, about 55 percent of a PC could be recovered,
with the recovered components valued at $34.[28]
However, to reduce materials costs, computer manufacturers
are now relying more heavily on plastics, which
carry their own set of toxicity and recyclability
issues. As of 2000, computers contained about 90
percent fewer precious metals than they did in 1996.[29]
Health Impacts
The physiological and health impacts on humans and
animals of many of the toxic substances contained
in E-Waste are discussed:[30]
- Reproduction: damage to both male and female
reproductive systems, including interfering with
development of the testes; reduction in semen
production and quality; abnormal morphology of
sperm; low egg hatchability; and reduced fertility
rates.
- DNA:damage
in lymphocytes, fetal and developmental toxicity;
growth retardation; abnormal brain development,
which can result in intellectual impairment; and
possible long-term impacts on memory, learning
and behaviour.
- Nervous System: damage to the central nervous
system (CNS) and blood system, including CNS depression
and neurotoxicity; immune system suppression,
including inhibition of a key blood cell enzyme.
- Organs: damage to the brain, including swelling;
liver, including liver necrosis; kidney, including
renal toxicity; thyroid; pancreas; lymph nodes;
spleen; and bone, including bone toxicity.
- Skin: contact dermatitis; skin lesions; carcinogenic,
including tumour promotion and lung cancer; anaemia;
CBD (a currently-incurable, debilitating disease
that can sometimes be fatal); and mortality.
- Hormonal System: disruption to endocrine systems
including the oestrogen, androgen, thyroid hormone,
retinoid and corticosteroid systems; inhibition
of human androgen hormone reception; and ability
to mimic natural oestrogen hormones, leading to
altered sexual development in some organisms.
- Other: hypertension (high blood pressure); cardiovascular
and heart disease; respiratory tract irritation,
including irritation of the nose, mouth and eyes.
1.
Schmidt, C.W. (2002) ‘E-junk explosion’,
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol 110,
no. 4. http://eHP.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110-4/focus.html
(viewed 4 May 2006) (Back)
2. Brigden, K., Labunska, I., Santillo,
D. and Allsopp, M. (2005) Recycling of Electronic
Wastes in China and India: Workplace & Environmental
Contamination, Greenpeace International, p. 3.
http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/india/press/reports/recycling-of-electronic
-wastes.pdf
(viewed 9 July 2006) (Back)
3. Greenpeace (n.d.) What is
e-Waste?. www.greenpeace.org/usa/campaigns/
toxics/hi-tech-highly-toxic/e-waste
(viewed 1 May 2006) (Back)
4. Worldwatch Institute (2005)
When your computer becomes toxic trash, Worldwatch
Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/goodstuff/computers
(viewed 15 May 2006) (Back)
5. Department of Environment and
Heritage (2005) Electrical and electronic product
stewardship strategy, DEH, p. 6. http://www.deh.gov.au/settlements/waste/electricals/index.html
(viewed 12 May 2006) (Back)
6. Puckett, J. et al (2002)
Exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of Asia,
Basel Action Network, p. 5. http://www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.pdf
(viewed 1 May 2006) (Back)
7. Schmidt, C.W. (2002) ‘E-junk
explosion’, Environmental Health Perspectives,
vol 110, no. 4. http://eHP.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110-4/focus.html
(viewed 4 May 2006) (Back)
8. Worldwatch Institute (2005)
When your computer becomes toxic trash, Worldwatch
Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/goodstuff/computers
(viewed 15 May 2006) (Back)
9.
Schmidt, C.W. (2002) ‘E-junk explosion’,
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol 110,
no. 4. http://eHP.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110-4/focus.html
(viewed 4 May 2006) (Back)
10. Puckett, J. et al (2005)
The digital dump: exporting re-use and abuse to
Africa, Basel Action Network, p. 8. http://www.ban.org/BANreports/10-24-05/documents/
TheDigitalDump.pdf
(viewed 12 July 2006) (Back)
11. Earth Tones (2006) Environmental
Internet and phone company weighs in on e-waste,
Environmental News Network. http://www.enn.com/press.html?id=272
(viewed 27 April 2) (Back)
12. Puckett, J. et al (2005) The
digital dump: exporting re-use and abuse to Africa,
Basel Action Network, p. 6. http://www.ban.org/BANreports/10-24-05/documents/
TheDigitalDump.pdf
(viewed 12 July 2006) (Back)
13. Worldwatch Institute (2005)
When your computer becomes toxic trash, Worldwatch
Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/goodstuff/computers
(viewed 15 May 2006) (Back)
14. Biddle, D. (2000) End
of Life Computer & Electronics Recovery: Policy
Options for the Mid-Atlantic States, 2nd edn,
MACREDO, p. 10. http://macredo.org/publications/e_recovery.pdf
(viewed 19 May 2006) (Back)
15. Greenpeace (n.d.) What
is e-Waste?. www.greenpeace.org/usa/campaigns/
toxics/hi-tech-highly-toxic/e-waste
(viewed 1 May 2006) (Back)
16. Ibid (Back)
17. Puckett, J. et al (2005) The
digital dump: exporting re-use and abuse to Africa,
Basel Action Network, p. 11. http://www.ban.org/BANreports/10-24-05/documents/
TheDigitalDump.pdf
(viewed 12 July 2006) (Back)
18. Puckett, J. et al
(2002) Exporting harm: the high-tech trashing
of Asia, Basel Action Network, p. 4. http://www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.pdf
(viewed 1 May 2006) (Back)
19. Puckett, J. et al
(2002) Exporting harm: the high-tech trashing
of Asia, Basel Action Network, p. 1-2. http://www.ban.org/E-waste/technotrashfinalcomp.pdf
(viewed 1 May 2006); Government Accountability Office
(2005) Electronic waste: strengthening the role
of the Federal Government in encouraging recycling
and reuse, United States Government, p. 29. http://www.federalsustainability.org/initiatives/eps/GAO-06-47.pdf
(viewed July 9 2006) The Office confirms that this
is in fact the case in the US. (Back)
20. Ibid, pp. 9-10; Meinhardt
Infrastructure & Environment Pty Ltd (2001) Computer
& peripherals material project, p. 30. http://www.deh.gov.au/settlements/publications/waste/electricals/
computerreport/index.html
(viewed 10 May 2006); Earth Tones (2006) Environmental
Internet and phone company weighs in on e-waste,
Environmental News Network. http://www.enn.com/press.html?id=272
(viewed 27 April 2); Worldwatch Institute (2005) When
your computer becomes toxic trash, Worldwatch
Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/goodstuff/computers
(viewed 15 May 2006); Brigden, K., Labunska, I., Santillo,
D. and Allsopp, M. (2005) Recycling of Electronic
Wastes in China and India: Workplace & Environmental
Contamination, Greenpeace International, p. 3.
http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/india/press/reports/
recycling-of-electronic-wastes.pdf
(viewed 9 July 2006); Environment Victoria (2005)
Environmental report card on computers 2005: computer
waste in Australia and the case for producer responsibility,
pp. 8-9. http://www.envict.org.au/file/EWaste_blue_report_card.pdf
(viewed 9 July 2006) (Back)
21. Brigden, K., Labunska, I.,
Santillo, D. and Allsopp, M. (2005) Recycling
of Electronic Wastes in China and India: Workplace
& Environmental Contamination, Greenpeace
International, p. 3. http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/india/press/reports/recycling-of-electronic
-wastes.pdf
(viewed 9 July 2006) (Back)
22. Department of Environment
and Heritage (2005) Electrical and electronic
product stewardship strategy, DEH, pp. 8-9. http://www.deh.gov.au/settlements/waste/electricals/index.html
(viewed 12 May 2006) (Back)
23. Earth Tones (2006) Environmental
Internet and phone company weighs in on e-waste,
Environmental News Network. http://www.enn.com/press.html?id=272
(viewed 27 April 2); Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition
cited in Schmidt, C.W. (2002) ‘E-junk explosion’,
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol 110,
no. 4. http://eHP.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110-4/focus.html
(viewed 4 May 2006) (Back)
24. Department of Environment
and Heritage (2005) Electrical and electronic
product stewardship strategy, DEH, p. 8. http://www.deh.gov.au/settlements/waste/electricals/index.html
(viewed 12 May 2006) (Back)
25. Schmidt, C.W. (2002) ‘E-junk
explosion’, Environmental Health Perspectives,
vol 110, no. 4. http://eHP.niehs.nih.gov/members/2002/110-4/focus.html
(viewed 4 May 2006) (Back)
26. O’Meara Sheehan, M.
(2003) The hidden costs of the e-economy,
Worldwatch Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/live/discussion/81
(viewed 15 May 2006) (Back)
27. Broughton (1996) cited in
Biddle, D. (2000) End of Life Computer & Electronics
Recovery: Policy Options for the Mid-Atlantic States,
2nd edn, MACREDO, p. 22. http://macredo.org/publications/e_recovery.pdf
(viewed 19 May 2006) (Back)
28. Microelectronics and Computer
Technology Corporation (1996) cited in Biddle, D.
(2000) End of Life Computer & Electronics
Recovery: Policy Options for the Mid-Atlantic States,
2nd edn, MACREDO, p. 26. http://macredo.org/publications/e_recovery.pdf
(viewed 19 May 2006) (Back)
29. Biddle, D. (2000) End
of Life Computer & Electronics Recovery: Policy
Options for the Mid-Atlantic States, 2nd edn,
MACREDO, p. 22. http://macredo.org/publications/e_recovery.pdf
(viewed 19 May 2006) (Back)
30. Brigden, K., Labunska, I.,
Santillo, D. and Allsopp, M. (2005) Recycling
of Electronic Wastes in China and India: Workplace
& Environmental Contamination, Greenpeace
International, p. 3. http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/
india/press/reports/recycling-of-electronic-wastes.pdf
(viewed 9 July 2006); Environment Victoria (2005)
Environmental report card on computers 2005: computer
waste in Australia and the case for producer responsibility,
pp. 8-9. http://www.envict.org.au/file/EWaste_blue_report_card.pdf
(viewed 9 July 2006) (Back)
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