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the Publication Brief
A
response from the next generation to the 1987 Brundtland
Commission Report
Building
on from the success of our flagship publication in
2005, The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business
Opportunities, Innovation and Governance in the 21
st Century, our second book, Cents and Sustainability,
is a response from the next generation to the
key themes developed in the book Our Common Future,
published in 1987 (also known as
The Brundtland Commission Report ), to mark
its 20 year anniversary in 2007.
Our
Common Future was one of the first sustainable
development publications to suggest that the twin
goals of economic growth and sustainable development
could be reconciled. The focus of this new book is
to provide a response to the call by Gro Brundtland,
as stated in the foreword; 'What
is needed now is a new era of economic growth - growth
that is forceful and at the same time socially and
environmentally sustainable.'
With the 20th anniversary in 2007 it is clearly the
time to re-examine these important issues. Twenty
years on, significantly more evidence and research
is now available to allow a deeper investigation and
understanding of how this 'forceful sustainable growth'
is possible. The goal of Cents and Sustainability
(OCF20+) is to further explore, in a modern global
context, the conditions under which society can achieve
a form of economic growth that is both socially and
environmentally sustainable.
The
book, Our Common Future, was a landmark publication
in many ways and our intention is not to replace it
with an update but rather enhance it and develop new
material that builds upon the central issues that
were raised in the original work. We feel strongly
that there is a need to communicate and build on from
the frameworks within Our Common Future
in a modern context in order to address the key goals
of its message in the 21 st Century. Our project and
its work to date has been greatly inspired by the
book Our Common Future and we are honoured
to be advised on this new book by the lead author
Jim McNeill, Secretary General to the United Nations
Brundtland Commission in 1989, and formerly the Director
of Environment for the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) for seven years. We are also
grateful for the advise and mentoring from Professor
Steve Dovers.
Our
Common Future, we believe, is one of the
most comprehensive books ever written on sustainable
development. The process of consultation and review
undertaken in the development of Our Common Future
resulted in a significant re-framing of the
sustainable development debates of the time and helped
build consensus for the need for sustainable development
globally. It has been the most important book ever
to mainstream sustainable development into government
and international institutions. The text and frameworks
are so rigorous they have stood the test of time.
Our Common Future also built the momentum
for the first World Summit on Sustainable Development
in Rio in 1992 and our generation should be making
a significant effort to mark the 20th anniversary.
The
first complete draft of the book is scheduled to be
completed by March 2007, followed by a peer review
process involving a number of advisors and experts.
It will then be edited and updated for release in
December 2007, as part of the 20th Anniversary of
Our Common Future.
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Rationale
and Justification: is it the right time to respond
to Our Common Future?
In
2007 it will be twenty years since The World Commission
on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission)
published Our Common Future. The book effectively
demonstrated the need for the introduction and definition
of 'sustainable development' - being 'development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs'. Yet after twenty years many of the key
global trends are not improving our ability to meet
our own needs, let alone the needs of our future generations.
In 2005, commenting on the UN Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, said
that the study shows, 'how human activities are
causing environmental damage on a massive scale throughout
the world, and how the very basis for life on earth
is declining at an alarming rate.'
Clearly
the need for sustainable development is greater than
ever, but we should not underestimate the challenge
here. Our Common Future had the effect of
building extraordinary consensus in the late 80's
for sustainable development, shown by the attendance
of over 180 world leaders at the World Summit for
Sustainable Development in 1992 in Rio, Brazil. Our
Common Future was endorsed by numerous institutions
around the world including the World Bank and the
OECD. So the question needs to be asked why has so
little overall progress been made on both the global
environmental front and on ending extreme poverty?
Jeffrey Sachs for instance, in The End of Poverty,
brings together the case that it is possible and extremely
affordable to end extreme world poverty by 2025 and
thus help numerous countries which currently experience
negative economic growth to achieve a transition to
positive economic growth. Clearly there are significant
barriers; what Jim MacNeill, lead author of Our
Common Future, refers to as 'blocking coalitions'
to achieving sustainable development. How do we best
turn these barriers to achieving sustainable development
into long term drivers for innovation and creativity?
This is the focus of The Natural Edge Project.
To
help advance the discussion on sustainable development
and build greater understanding and political will,
TNEP's second publication, Cents and Sustainability,
aims to cover the following issues:
1.
Address important and significant barriers to
achieving Sustainable Development.
2.
Demonstrate it is possible to have economic growth
without environmental pressures.
3.
Demonstrate that a Socially Sustainable form of
Economic Growth can be achieved.
4.
Start to address some of the effective ways to
reduce poverty and lift economic prosperity in
the developing world.
5.
Demonstrate in detail how to decouple economic
growth from environmental pressure through a renewed
focus on resource productivity.
6.
Show how threats and limiting factors to economic
growth such as high oil prices (the peaking of
world oil production) can be turned into an opportunity
to reduce oil dependency, improve global security
and help economic growth.
7.
Bring new clarity to other key environmental issues
and debates.
8.
Provide policy guidance to help nations achieve
a socially and environmentally sustainable form
of economic growth and provide an economic case
for effective institutional reform.
9.
Improve integration of sustainable development
into the central agencies of government.
10.
Provide an overview about
the coalitions forming to promote sustainable
development.
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Why
has no one yet written a synthesis such as this?
To
date few people have tried to address, integrate
and synthesize such a broad topic. The reasons for
this are addressed in the new as follows;
•
Many
of the empirical and theoretical studies that
will be drawn together in this new book have been
published in the last ten years. Hence until recently
many of the studies needed did not exist to rigorously
address such a broad question as how to have '
a new era of economic growth - growth that
is forceful and at the same time socially and
environmentally sustainable '. For instance
until even five years ago there were few econometric
studies of the costs and benefits of achieving
large reductions in greenhouse gas emissions like
CO2. This book incorporates key findings from
a number of such studies.
•
The fact
that the traditional academic system produces
experts in specific disciplines who, while being
an expert in socio-economic sciences or environmental
sciences for instance, are rarely encouraged to
write about the interaction of both. This book
covers both social and environmental sustainability
issues and their interaction.
•
The
predominance of the belief that the more one does
to help the economy the worse off the environment
and social outcomes will be, and the more one does
for the environment or society the worse off the
economy will be. Until the 1970s both economists
and environmentalists assumed that it was all but
impossible to have economic growth without negative
environmental pressures. To that point economic
growth had risen lock step with energy and resource
usage and levels of pollution globally.
•
The
OPEC oil crisis of the 1970s provided the first
sign that economic growth could be decoupled from
increasing resource usage, pollution and environmental
pressure. For seven years after 1979, the US economy
grew by 19 percent while energy use fell by 6
percent as more fuel efficient cars were built.
Through efforts to reduce urban air pollution,
asbestos, ozone depleting chemicals, acid rain,
benzene, PCBs, and lead in petrol many countries
have shown that it is possible to achieve significant
reductions in pollution without the predicted
negative impacts on the economy.
•
There
are now many encouraging regional examples of
significant reductions in the use of toxic chemicals,
reductions in waste to landfill, and greenhouse
gas reductions that have not harmed economic growth.
There is also now a wealth of empirical data and
theoretical studies showing where decoupling has
been achieved, and this needs to be analysed and
better understood by decision makers globally.
•
The
OECD Environment Ministers highlighted the importance
of this by marking 'Decoupling of Economic Growth
from Environmental Pressures' one of their five
goals for their 2001-2011 OECD Environmental Strategy.
The OECD's work in this area has shown that, for
every environmental pressure, there is at least
one OECD country that has achieved absolute decoupling
already. And yet to date no publication has been
developed to distil and present these lessons
where efforts to achieve decoupling for a wide
range of environmental pressures has been successful.
• This
publication seeks to compliment the OECD's work
and bring in other studies and empirical data to
demonstrate once and for all where, and how, significant
decoupling is being achieved across a wide range
of environmental pressures. Through undertaking
this study the book, Cents and Sustainability
(OCF20+) is seeking to provide an historically
important resource for business leaders and policy
and decision makers globally, while also providing
a solid foundation of hope for the future.
Using
lessons from the last 20 years to ensure the next
20 make our children proud
The
first TNEP flagship publication in 2005, 'The
Natural Advantage of Nations' addressed major
barriers to sustainable development such as how
in a globalised competitive world can companies
both become environmentally sustainable and be globally
competitive? This second TNEP flagship publication,
'Cents and Sustainability' will address
a range of significant barriers to achieving sustainable
development such as how is it possible to achieve
environmental sustainability and higher economic
and jobs growth? This second book will address further
the key role that institutional reform and effective
policy reforms play in achieving sustainable development.
In the early pages of Our Common Future
the critical importance of such reforms is discussed.
This book will overview some of the best examples
from around the world of successful institutional
reform and policy implementation for sustainable
development. Just as with 'The Natural Advantage
of Nations', this book will also have an online
companion. Together these two books and their online
companions, developed with many of the leading sustainability
thinkers and practitioners from around the world
will provide a comprehensive 20 year update from
TNEP to the seminal Brundtland Commission Report.
'Our Common Future'.
By
clearly differentiating between economic and physical
growth and focusing on how to achieve significant
decoupling, this book, Cents and Sustainability,
moves on from the traditional economist versus environmentalist
debates about growth. Rather than arguing as the
traditional debates have done about whether growth
is good or bad, and whether it should be increased
or slowed the new framework in this
book seeks to shift the debate to be about;
-
How can the decoupling of economic growth from
the negative environmental pressures impacts be
achieved?
-
What progress thus far has been made to achieve
such decoupling?
-
What can we learn from those who have achieved
significant decoupling?
-
What do empirical studies suggest to be the policies
to help achieve such decoupling?
-
How best can society measure this decoupling?
There
is great interest in these economic, social and
environmental questions and debates. Debates about,
for instance, how the welfare state affects economic
efficiency and economic growth have been central
debates of the last two decades in most OECD countries.
There is now great interest for instance in how
to achieve social sustainability goals such as reducing
corruption to ensure the recent commitments by the
G8 to forgive debt and increase aid to developing
countries are as effective as possible. There is
also great interest in how to achieve absolute or
even better full decoupling of environmental pressure
from economic growth. The level of interest in how
best to measure such decoupling is shown by the
2002 OECD publication Indicators to Measure Decoupling
of Environmental Pressure from Economic Growth.
[1]
This report shows that of all the areas currently
measured by environmental indicators there is already
an OECD country that has achieved absolute decoupling
in that measure or combinations of them.
The
EU's 2003 review 'Europe's environmental progress
at risk from unsustainable economic activities'[2]
it stated; "The state of the environment across
Europe has improved in several respects over the
past decade, but much of the progress is likely
to be wiped out by economic growth because governments
have yet to make significant strides towards decoupling
environmental pressures from economic activity...
" However, interest in such decoupling is not
just coming from traditional OECD countries. In
Asia there is now real interest in this question
as evidenced by the holding in March 2005 of the
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) Ministerial Conference
on Environment and Development on the theme of 'Achieving
Environmentally Sustainable Economic Growth'. Rae
Kwon Chung, Director of the Environment and Sustainable
Development Division, UNESCAP, Bangkok , Thailand
states, 'It is now an urgent challenge to find
ways to ensure that the old paradigm 'grow first,
clean up later' is replaced by an integrated approach
that enables economic growth to support and reinforce
sustainability rather than undermine it.'[3]
There are many significant
forums in the Asia Pacific making such statements.
Another is the Asia Pacific Forum for Economic Development
(APFED).
[4]
We quote in full the following statement to show the
extent to which full decoupling of environmental pressure
from economic growth is being seriously canvassed
and discussed. In Part II Future Vision for the Asia
Pacific Region APFED stated; "Sustainable economic
growth: With its diversity as an asset, Asia and the
Pacific should maintain dynamism to achieve modest
but steady economic growth, thereby freeing everyone
from poverty, and supporting their basic needs. As
the growth should be sustainable and environmentally
benign, decoupling of economic growth from environmental
degradation is promoted by:
•
Achieving a less materialised society, and service
and knowledge-based economy: the entire society
and the market should shift their focus of production
and consumption patterns to knowledge-based and
locally-added values rather than material-intensive
products based on mass exploitation of non-renewable
resources;
•
A shift to renewable energy: in view of the
rapidly growing concern about global warming, serious
air pollution, the need for energy supply diversification,
and long-term energy security, the priority of energy
sources should be shifted from fossil fuels towards
renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass,
geothermal and micro-hydro, and in the longer term
hydrogen and fuel cells, to the extent supported
by the technological potentials of different renewable
energy sources;
•
Establishing a 'sufficiency economy': the 'sufficiency
economy' is a philosophy that stresses the middle
path as the overriding principle for appropriate
conduct and way of life for the entire populace.
A paradigm shift is needed to decouple quality of
life from mass consumption. It applies to the society's
pattern of consumption, and its twin, production,
and beyond that to individual, family and community
choices to avoid any form of economic growth that
is harmful to the environment."
As
this book will show a significant shift is starting
in the Asia Pacific and across the world. Cents
and Sustainability (OCF20+) is a serious attempt
to assist in accelerating this shift.
(Back to Top)
How
does this new TNEP publication, Cents and Sustainability
specifically compliment and build on from TNEP's
first book, The Natural Advantage of Nations?
The
theme of Cents and Sustainability arose
out of the process of co-editing and co-authoring
the publication The Natural Advantage of Nations.
A number of empirical studies in The Natural
Advantage of Nations showed that seeking to
achieve certain aspects of sustainability would
not actually harm economic growth, but rather, there
was encouraging evidence that decoupling economic
growth from environmental and social pressure could
be achieved. Some studies were showing that a transition
to sustainability could even help create higher
economic growth than business-as-usual.
These
interesting results and subsequent discussion are
summarised in The Natural Advantage of Nations
(see pages 26-33). Clearly these results deserve
further investigation, as for instance, Robert Putnam's
work on social capital showed; that improving social
capital can help economic growth. But what about
other social sustainability goals? How would seeking
to achieve them affect economic growth? Also, while
The Natural Advantage of Nations brought
together some empirical studies showing that decoupling
of economic growth and environmental pressure was
possible, the book did not address the question
of whether this decoupling could be universally
achieved for all environmental pressures. Chapters
1, 2, 3 and 6 of Cents and Sustainability
addresses the 'growth' debates, building on from
what was written in The Natural Advantage of
Nations (see pages 27-33) in particular Chapter
17 Profitable Greenhouse Solutions with
Adjunct Professor Alan Pears. This new publication,
Cents and Sustainability, addresses
many new questions not covered in The Natural
Advantage of Nations.
Discussions
about whether ecological and social sustainability
goals can be achieved without trade-offs to economic
growth have a long history. For instance, ever since
the publication of Limits to Growth in
1972 there has been ongoing 'growth' debates and
discourses. The publication Cents and Sustainability
is original and new, because it not only brings
together a current overview of the literature and
history of decoupling economic growth from environmental
pressures but also provides a comprehensive discussion
of the arguments, and resolves the 'growth debates'
once and for all.
In
particular, this publication attends to the long
standing and unproductive confusion between economic
growth (monetary growth) and physical throughput
(physical growth of energy and resources) in modern
economies, and the implications of such a clarification
for achieving consensus and progress on sustainability.
This publication investigates, also for the first
time, how seeking to achieve a comprehensive array
of social and environmental sustainability goals
will affect economic growth (chapters 2, 3 and 4)
and the policy mechanisms and institutional frameworks
to underpin them (Section 5). The resolution of
the growth debates has significant implications
for many other sustainability debates such as the
climate debate, which is shown in new ways (chapter
4).
There is growing awareness
globally that while economic development has often
increased job opportunities and per capita GDP the
current methods of production that have underpinned
industrialisation have been associated with negative
externalities; environmental damage, resource depletion
and waste. Hence there is great interest in understanding
what policies and frameworks can help countries achieve
both economic growth and social and environmental
sustainability. TNEP's OCF20+ response will provide
up-to-date evidence, best practice approaches, policies,
and examples of how to achieve this.
(Back
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Table
of Contents
Preface:
By the Authors.
Forewords confirmed from:
- Gro Harlem Brundtland, Chair of the World Commission
on Environment and Development, widely referred
to as the Brundtland Commission.
- Dr. Kenneth G. Ruffing, formerly Deputy Director
and Chief Economist of the OECD Environment Directorate
from 2000 to 2005.
Acknowledgements and Endorsements
Introduction: Our Common Future, Jim McNeill (Former
UN Secretary General UN Commission of Environment
and Development).
SECTION
1: PROSPECTS FOR AN ECONOMIC GROWTH THAT IS SOCIALLY
AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE
Chapter 1: Sustainability - Richer
in Every Way.
Chapter 2: A New Form of Economic
Growth that is Socially and Environmentally Sustainable.
- What are the criticisms of the current form of
economic growth?
- What is the evidence that decoupling economic
growth from environmental and social pressure can
be achieved?
- The growth debates: an historical perspective
Chapter 3: What is the Consensus
on the Required Level for the Decoupling of Economic
Growth from Environmental Pressures?
Chapter 4: Can Humanity Achieve
70-90 percent Decoupling of Environmental Pressure
from Economic Growth Fast Enough and on a Large
Enough Scale?
- The important issue is what type of growth are
we talking about?
- What market, informational and institutional failures
exist?
Chapter 5: What Type of Economic
Growth is Compatible with a Socially and Environmentally
Sustainable Society?
- What is a sustainable society?
- Are there too many goals to achieve? [Case Study:
Curitiba]
SECTION 2: PROSPECTS
FOR AN ECONOMIC GROWTH THAT IS SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE:
THE EVIDENCE
Chapter 6: Jobs, Environment and
Economic Growth.
- What strategies exist to create higher employment
and achieve sustainability?
- Is there an inevitable trade-off between labour
standards and unemployment?
Chapter 7: Creativity, Innovation
and Economic Growth.
- Creativity and innovation – the secret for
lasting economic growth
- Attracting the creative class – the key
to achieving high economic growth regions and cities
- Tolerance and diversity clearly matter to hi-tech
concentration and economic growth
Chapter 8: The Aging Population
Crisis.
- What are the latest creative and respectful
solutions to the aging population crisis
Chapter 9: Core Social Sustainability
Goals and Economic Growth.
- How will eliminating corruption effect economic
growth?
- How will seeking to reduce extreme global inequity
affect economic growth?
- How does social spending on education and health
affect economic growth?
- What is the value of social capital and trust
to economic growth?
Chapter 10: Reducing Extreme Poverty
is Essential to turn Negative Economic Growth into
Positive Economic Growth in the Developing World.
- What is the cost of ending the extreme poverty
and facilitating economic growth in the developing
world?
- Can the West afford the costs of investments in
health to break the poverty trap and achieve positive
economic growth in Africa?
- Are investments in natural capital essential to
break the poverty trap and achieve positive economic
growth in the developing world?
- What effect does rapid population growth have
on economic growth? How can nations break the demographic
trap?
SECTION 3: PROSPECTS
FOR AN ECONOMIC GROWTH THAT IS ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE:
THE EVIDENCE
Chapter 11: Addressing the ‘Tragedy
of the Commons’ through Adaptive Governance.
Chapter 12: Achieving Decoupling
Through a Renewed Focus on Resource Productivity.
- What sources of ‘green’ resource productivity
gains exist that could also assist economic growth?
Table 12.1: Executive summary of potential
areas of resource productivity and economic growth
opportunities
Chapter 13: Decoupling through
Eco-Efficiency and Recycling.
Chapter 14: Decoupling through
Whole System Design and Eco-Product Design.
Chapter 15: Decoupling through
advanced Biomimicry, Green Chemistry and Engineering.
SECTION 4: CASE STUDY:
DECOUPLING ECONOMIC GROWTH FROM GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE (DEEP) CUTS
Chapter 16: What Scale and Speed
of Decoupling is needed to Avoid Dangerous Climate
Change?
Chapter 17: Profitable Greenhouse
Solutions: Achieving Sufficient Decoupling of Economic
Growth from Greenhouse Gas Emissions while Growing
the Economy?
Chapter 18: Reframing the Debate:
Why the Decoupling of Economic Growth from Greenhouse
Gas Emissions need Not Harm Economic Growth and
Can, in fact, Help it
- Assumptions about energy efficiency
- Assumptions about the cost of climate change
- Assumptions used in economic models
- Current dominant perspectives on energy
- How the revenue from a carbon tax would be allocated
- a significant factor in determining whether a
carbon tax could help the economy
- Confusion between ‘economic’ energy
efficiency and ‘functional’ energy efficiency
- Including the costs, opportunities and benefits
of reducing non-CO2 greenhouse gases – this
lowers climate change mitigation costs by two thirds
- Current rules and assumptions about carbon sequestration
from biomass and plantations
- A range of other assumptions in the current economic
modelling of mitigation costs – can lead to
significant over-estimating of the costs
- Assumptions in many economic models – they
tend to overestimate the likelihood of rebound effects
Chapter 19: A Wave of Innovation
in the Energy Sector.
Chapter 20: Barriers to Decoupling.
Chapter 21: Policy Mechanisms -
The Growing Consensus.
SECTION
5: WHAT PURPOSEFUL POLICY MECHANISMS ARE NEEDED
TO ACHIEVE DECOUPLING OF ECONOMIC GROWTH FROM ENVIRONMENTAL
PRESSURES?
Chapter 22: Innovation and Knowledge
Strategies
- Is the environmental Kruznet’s curve hypothesis
(EKC) correct?
- Dealing with the tragedy of the commons (Case
Study from New Zealand)
- Sustainable technology policy (Case study from
the Netherlands)
- Pollution and toxics control, product responsibility
legislation (Case Studies from the European Union,
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, London congestion
charge)
- Carbon markets, making ‘Cap-n-Trade’
work (Case Studies from the Chicago Climate Exchange
and the European Emissions Trading Scheme)
- Managing demand in the energy and water sectors
(Oregon State USA, Sweden, PG&E in California)
Chapter 23: Policy Analysis - Dealing
with Vehicle Emissions in California.
Chapter 24: Policy Analysis - Driving
the Uptake of the Best Available Technology in Germany.
Chapter 25: Policy Analysis - A
Rapid Transition in Fuel Shifting in Delhi.
Chapter 26: What is the Right Policy
Mix to Drive the Decoupling Process?
- What are the most effective policies to internalise
externalities while providing minimal harm to business
competitiveness?
- What are the most effective policies and reforms
to encourage investment in sustainable development?
- What indicators should be used to measure the
process of decoupling economic growth from environmental
pressures?
CONCLUSION: THE RACE
TO SUSTAINABILITY
Chapter 27: Clearing Blocking Coalitions:
A Whole of Society Approach to Sustainability
- Short history of blocking coalitions to sustainable
development
- Cracks emerge: the collapse of the global climate
coalition
- Freedom of information acts (India)
- Anti-blocking coalitions emerge: Chicago Climate
Exchange (USA), The Climate Group (UK), Forum
for the Future (UK), The Natural Edge Project.
Advisors
and Mentors
Jim
MacNeill
Jim
MacNeill, is a Canadian consultant, environmentalist,
and international public servant who was Director
of Environment at OECD in Paris (1978-84), Secretary
General of the World Commission on Environment and
Development (Brundtland Commission) and lead author
of its landmark report Our Common Future (1984-87)
and member off the Caspian Development Advisory
Panel, the Jury of the Volvo Foundation’s
Environment Prize, and a member of several boards
including the Woods Hole Research Center, in Woods
Hole, Massachusetts. While at OECD, he oversaw a
landmark program of empirical research on the relationships
between the environment and the economy. In 1984,
this work resulted in OECD finding that the environment
and the economy could be made mutually reinforcing.
His work has left a lasting legacy.
Professor
Steve Dovers
Professor
Steve Dovers has made substantial contributions
to the fields of theoretical and policy dimensions
of sustainability, institutional arrangements for
resource management, science-policy linkages, and
Australian environmental history. Prof. Dovers is
a senior fellow at ANU's Centre for Resource and
Environmental Studies where he lectures and manages
a large research group. At ANU, Dovers is a member
of ANU's Economics and Environment Network, National
Institute for Environment, and National Institute
for Social Science and Law (Advisory Board). Prof.
Dovers is also a member of the editorial boards
of the Journal of Environmental Management, Environmental
Science and Policy, Global Environmental Change;
and the Australasian Journal of Environmental Management.
(Back to Top)
References
1.
OECD Secretariat (2002) Indicators to Measure
Decoupling of Environmental Pressure and Economic
Growth. (Back)
2.
Europe 's Environment: the third assessment has
been prepared for the 'Environment for Europe' ministerial
conference taking place in Kiev, Ukraine, on 21-23
May under the auspices of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE). The two previous
assessments were published by the Agency in 1995
and 1998 for the conferences held in Sofia , Bulgaria,
and in Aarhus , Denmark . The new report covers
a total of 52 countries, including for the first
time the whole of the Russian Federation and the
11 other Eastern European, Caucasus and Central
Asian (EECCA) states. http://org.eea.eu.int/documents/newsreleases/kiev-en,
http://reports.eea.eu.int/environmental_assessment_report_2003_10/en/tab_content_RLR.
(Back)
3.
Rae Kwon Chung, Director of the Environment and
Sustainable Development Division, UNESCAP, Bangkok,
(2005) Achieving environmentally sustainable
economic growth in Asia and the Pacific. (Website:
www.unescap.org)
(Back)
4.
http://www.iges.or.jp/en/ltp/pdf/apfed/APFED.swf,
http://www.iges.or.jp/en/ltp/pdf/apfed/pdf/futurevision.pdf
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